Fanum Voltumnae (Latin for 'Sanctuary of Voltumna') was the chief religious center of the Etruscan civilization. The term fanum denotes a sacred space, not necessarily a single temple. Ancient sources describe it as the meeting place of the Etruscan League, a federation of twelve city-states known as lucumonies. These annual gatherings, which took place in a central location regarded as the spiritual omphalos (navel) of Etruria, served both religious and political purposes. The principal deity worshipped at the site was Voltumna (or Veltha), who may have been the state god of the Etruscans.
Historical accounts
The Roman historian
Livy referred to the Fanum Voltumnae five times in his history
Ab Urbe Condita, citing events dated to 434, 433, 405, 397, and 389 BCE. He placed it "apud Volsinios" (near Volsinii) but did not specify the exact location. Livy described how the Etruscan city-states convened to deliberate on matters such as military campaigns and religious rituals. In one account, the council refused to aid Veii because it had declared war without consulting the league. Livy also noted that Roman merchants used the accompanying fairs as opportunities for espionage.
Other ancient authors, such as Marcus Terentius Varro and Propertius, referred to Etruscan religious traditions and a god associated with Velzna (Orvieto), possibly Voltumna. Despite these references, the precise location of the sanctuary remains uncertain.
Cultural and religious significance
Fanum Voltumnae was more than a political forum. It served as the central religious sanctuary for the Etruscan League, hosting annual festivals that involved sacrifices, games, and the election of the federal priest (
sacerdos). Its importance likely lay in reinforcing the unity of the league and reaffirming religious traditions across the independent city-states of Etruria.
Archaeological investigations
Modern interest in locating the Fanum dates back to the 15th century. Despite centuries of speculation and excavation, no definitive location has been confirmed. However, extensive digs since 2000 near Orvieto—at the Campo della Fiera site—have uncovered layered sacred structures, including wells, paved roads, and a large temple foundation. These findings led archaeologist Simonetta Stopponi to propose that this site matches Livy's description. The continuity of religious use from the 6th century BCE to the medieval period adds credibility to this identification.
In 2014, Stopponi announced the discovery of a polychrome terracotta head of an Etruscan god, further strengthening the case for Orvieto as the sanctuary's location.
Summary of main hypotheses
A number of hypotheses have been proposed for the location of the Fanum Voltumnae. The following table summarizes key theories:
|
| Active excavations, strongest scholarly support |
| Excavated Roman layers, interpretation contested |
| Partial excavations, contested reading of Rescript |
| Some finds, no consensus |
| Based on early modern speculation |
| Visibly strategic site, unconfirmed link |
| Etruscan evidence present, uncertain association |
| No archaeological confirmation |
| Sacred geography theorized |
| Speculative, lacks direct association |
| Mythical elements, unverified |
Scholarly consensus
Among modern scholars, the site at Campo della Fiera in Orvieto is considered the most plausible candidate, based on archaeological continuity, scale, and sacred structures. While some of alternative theories remain part of the academic conversation, many are now considered outdated, speculative, or based on misinterpretations of classical texts.
Sources
-
Coarelli, Filippo. "Il rescritto di Spello e il santuario 'etnico' degli umbri." In *Umbria Cristiana*, Spoleto, 2001, pp. 737–747.
-
Ligota, Christopher R. "Annius of Viterbo and Historical Method." *Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes*, vol. 50, 1987, pp. 44–56.
-
Ridgway, David. "Archaeology in Sardinia and Etruria, 1974–1979." *Archaeological Reports*, vol. 26, 1979–1980, pp. 54–70.
